Major Research Designs And Methods Psychology Essay

Major Research Designs And Methods Psychology Essay Since time immemorial, Sociologists have been using different designs and research methods to examine society and social behaviour. Most sociological research involves  field work typically designed to depict the characteristics of a population as fully as possible. The designs and methods have proved utilitarian in studying the behaviour and relationships among groups of people and institutions and how their characteristics are shaped by these relationships. It analyses how society changes and how it maintains stability, looking into both unanimity and conflict among different social groups. Sociologys subject matter comprises of social procedures such as, deviance, identity development, socialization and social institutions, including work, religion, family. Major research designs The three most popular social research  designs are discussed below- CROSS SECTIONAL: It is also known as transversal studies,  cross-sectional analyses and  prevalence study. Cross sectional research involves the study of a number of individuals varying in age but have the same attribute or characteristic of interest at a single point of time. It forms a class of  research methods  that necessitate observation of all of a population, or a representative subset, at one specific point in time. They differ from  case-control studies  in that they aim to provide data on the entire population under study, whereas case-control studies typically include only individuals with a specific characteristic, with a sample, often a tiny minority, of the rest of the population. Cross-sectional studies are descriptive studies (neither longitudinal nor experimental). Unlike case-control studies, they can be used to describe, not only the  Odds ratio, but also  absolute risks and  relative risks  from  prevalences.  They may be used to describe some feature of the population, such as  prevalence  of an illness, or they may support inferences of cause and effect.  Longitudinal studies  differ from both in making a series of observations more than once on members of the study population over a period of time. Longitudinal, in which scientists study the same individuals or society repeatedly over a specified period of time. A  longitudinal study  is a  correlation  research study that involves repeated observations of the same variables over long periods of time often many decades. It is a type of observation study. Longitudinal studies are often used in psychology to study developmental trends across the life span, and in sociology  to study life events throughout lifetimes or generations. The reason for this is that unlike  cross-sectional, in which different individuals with same characteristics are compared,[1]  longitudinal studies track the same people, and therefore the differences observed in those people are less likely to be the result of cultural differences across generations. Because of this benefit, longitudinal studies make observing changes more accurate, and they are applied in various other fields. In medicine, the design is used to uncover predictors of ce rtain diseases. In advertising, the design is used to identify the changes that advertising has produced in the attitudes and behaviours of those within the target audience who have seen the advertising campaign. Cross-sequential, in which scientists test individuals in a cross-sectional sample more than once over a specified period of time Six of the most popular sociological research  methods  (procedures) are the  case study, survey, observational, correlation, experimental,  and  cross-cultural methods, as well as working with information already available. Cross sequential studies combine both longitudinal and cross sectional methods in an attempt to both shorten the length of the research and minimize developmental assumptions Research methods Five of the most popular methods which help in sociological research are- Case study Survey Observational Experimental Cross-cultural CASE STUDY METHOD: In  case study research, a research worker analyses a person or small group of individuals with a strange situation or condition. Case studies are usually clinical in scope. The researcher (often a clinical sociologist) sometimes applies self-report measures to gather quantitative data on the field. A comprehensive examination, including a long-term follow-up, can last months or years. The advantage of case study is that, it obtains meaningful information about individuals or groups. The disadvantage is, it is only applicable to individuals with alike characteristics instead of the general population. SURVEY RESEARCH METHOD: It is the most common method by which researchers gather their data. This type of research method  involves face-to-face interviewing or administering  questionnaires, or written surveys, in which interviewer meets with his subject to ask them questions. The investigator examines the data acquired from surveys to know about similarities, differences, and current trend. The researcher then makes predictions about the subjects being studied. Its positive side includes acquiring information from a large number of responders, conducting interviews according to respondents convenience, and obtaining data as tattily as possible. Its negative side includes biased volunteer or interviewer and distortion. Distortion occurs when the subjects are not honest with the investigator. OBSERVATIONAL METHOD: It is also called field research, is a basic of sociology. Observational research involves directly noticing subjects behaviour, either in a laboratory (called laboratory observation) or in a natural environment (called  naturalistic observation). Observational research ensures the investigator that subjects will share totally honest accounts of the experiences, take the study seriously, learn to remember, do not feel embarrassed. Observation studies are of two types- Participant Observation and Non-Participant Observation. In participant the investigator gets an opportunity to be a part of the group he is studying and might even live with them. This must not influence the behaviour or attitude of the people they are studying. In nonparticipant observation, the research worker analyses a group of individual but does not otherwise interact with them. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD: This research method  tries to ascertain  how  and  why  something happens. Experimental research tests the way of how one variable  affects the other. There are various factors that can affect the resultant of any type of experimental research. One is discovering random samples and representative of the universe being analysed. Another is bias  experimenter, in which the investigators prospects about what should or should not occur in the study shake the results. Still some other is ascertaining for  immaterial variables, such as noise level or room temperature, which may intervene with the conclusions of the experiment. Only when researcher cautiously controls for immaterial variables can she or he draw sensible conclusions about the results of specific variables on other. The major plus point of this method is that the experimenter can be reasonably sure of a cause-and-effect relationship. Most experiments take place in the laboratory, which ma y be a room with a unidirectional mirror, but some experiments occur in the field, or in a natural environment. CROSS-CULTURAL METHOD: This method involves the study of values, folkways, norms, attitudes, mores, customs, and practices necessitate knowledge of other societies and cultures. This research is designed to discover variations across people from different culture experience and background. Most cross-cultural research involves direct observation, survey, and  participant observation  methods of research. In participant observation the investigator gets an opportunity to be a part of the subjects community he is studying and might even live with them. The positive aspect of this method of research is that the information obtained is considered within the social, political, economical, and religious systems of that community. The study also demonstrates that Western cultural standards are not necessarily practised by other societies. What may be acceptable or normal for one group may be unacceptable or abnormal for another. Conclusion The important types of sociological research include cross cultural, surveys, experiments, the use of existing data and observational studies. Surveys are the most common of all as it allows the researcher for gathering much information on subjects or respondents that is relatively trivial. The conclusion of surveys that use random samples can be generalized to the population that the sample represents. An observational study is also common and allows us to acquire in-depth knowledge of a small group of individual. Because the samples of these analyses are not random, the outcome cannot necessarily be generalized to a population. Experiments are very less common in sociology. When field experiments are conducted in sociology, they can yield valuable information because of their experimental design.

Slavery and Christianity in Harriet A. Jacob’s Incidents in the Life of

The Incongruity of Slavery and Christianity in Harriet A. Jacob’s Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Written by Herself Slavery, the â€Å"Peculiar Institution† of the South, caused suffering among an innumerable number of human beings. Some people could argue that the life of a domestic animal would be better than being a slave; at least animals are incapable of feeling emotions. Suffering countless atrocities, including sexual assault, beatings, and murders, these slaves endured much more than we would think is humanly possible today. Yet, white southern â€Å"Christians† committed these atrocities, believing their behaviors were neither wrong nor immoral. Looking back at these atrocities, those who call themselves Christians are appalled. In Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Written by Herself, Harriet A. Jacobs describes the hypocrisy of Southern, Christian slave owners in order to show that slavery and Christianity are not congruent. â€Å"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness† (Jefferson). Thomas Jefferson, a white, Christian, political southern slave owner, wrote these words in 1776, a period in United States history when slavery thrived. The writer of the Declaration of Independence contradicts himself when he states that all men are created equal, when in actuality, his slaves were denied all that humans were meant to cherish. The slave owners accepted and rationalized slavery through the Holy Bible. The Bible mentions slavery on numerous occasions, and yet none of these passages condemn it. Timothy 6:1-2 states, â€Å"Let slaves regard th... ...e that chattel slavery was a cruel, perverse institution that no human should ever have to endure. Most people realize today how hypocritical it was to call oneself a Christian, while treating slaves so horribly. Throughout her book, Harriet Jacobs, in Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Written by Herself, revealed Americans everywhere that slave owners were hypocrites, and calling themselves Christians was perhaps the greatest sin of all. Works Cited Jacobs, Harriet A. Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Written by Herself. 1861. Ed. Lydia Maria Child. New ed. Jean Fagan Yellin. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1987. Jefferson, Thomas. â€Å"The Declaration of Independence.† 4 July 1776. The Holy Bible. New International Version. Zondervan Publishing House. 1983. King, Martin Luther. â€Å"I Have a Dream.† Washington, D.C. 28 Aug. 1963.

Project method Essay

1.Advantages of the project method 1.1Group projects enhance individualization- the difference between learners can be accommodated by encouraging them to take responsibility for a section that they have interest in or for which they have the capabilities. 1.2The projects allow learners the freedom to investigate, search for information and display self-expression, creativity and cognitive abilities. 1.3 Group projects provide opportunities for learners to work cooperatively with other learners in a team and enhance their social and communication skills. 1.4Learners are afforded opportunities to investigate and solve practical business-related problems. 1.5Learners are more likely to identify with knowledge that they have helped to collect(Mahaye in Jacobs at al 2002:231-232) Disadvantages of the project method 1.1A project does not contribute to the attainment of learning outcome may lead to a waste of valuable time. 1.2A project that is unachievable due to poor planning and definition may be detrimental to learners’ self concept and motivation. 2.Requirements for effective planning in teaching Business Studies †¢The teachers should have a good knowledge of their subject. †¢They should formulate clear aims of outcomes so that they themselves and their learners know exactly where they are going. †¢They should be familiar with the various approaches in Business Studies and also the sequence in which the material should be presented and then select the most meaningful approach and sequence. †¢Be familiar and use teaching methods that encourages effective participative learning. †¢Be aware of what teaching media are available and know when and how to use them. †¢Be able to asses learning, to maintain a high standard and to use evaluation to improve the quality of their teaching. 3.The critical outcomes †¢Identify and solve problems in which responses show that responsible decisions have been made using critical and creative thinking. †¢Work effectively with others as a member of a team, group, an organization or community. †¢Organize and manage themselves and their activities responsible  and effectively. †¢Collect, analyze, organize and critically evaluate information. †¢Communicate effectively using visual, mathematical or language skills in the modes of oral or written presentations. †¢Use science and technology effectively and critically showing responsibility towards the environment and health of others. †¢Demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems by recognizing that problem solving contexts do not exist in isolation The development outcomes †¢Reflect on and exploring a variety of strategies for more effective learning. †¢Participate as a responsible citizen in the life of local, national and global communication. †¢Be cultural and aesthetically across a range of social contexts. †¢Explore education and career opportunities. †¢Develop entrepreneurial opportunities 4.Factors to be considered in the choice of methods instructions †¢The learning outcome- What is the aim of a lesson? Is it to introduce new information, apply the theory in practice or revise completed work? †¢Learners needs- If the learner does not understand the work that has been explained, a teaching method should be chosen that provides opportunities for asking questions so that any obscurities and problems can be cleared up. †¢The subject contents- some subject contents are more practical while others are more theoretical. When section of the subject is extremely practical (e.g. market research) it is preferable to choose a method in which demonstrations and examples can be used to explain the subject content. †¢Learners talents and gifts- learners who are less gifted have difficulty learning hence the need for sufficient illustrations, demonstration, learner involvement and repetition. More gifted learners learn more quickly and are able to concentrate for longer periods. You should therefore choose methods that allow a learner to perform according to his/her abilities. †¢The competence of a teacher- You should know your own abilities and shortcoming. For example if you are not computer literate, you may decide to use and expert to deal with content on computer applications (emails, electronic storage and retrieval etc) if you have speech problems  you should avoid using the lecture method.

The Inventing Life of Thomas Jefferson

Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13, 1743, at Shadwell in Albemarle County, Virginia. A member of the Continental Congress, he was the author of the Declaration of Independence at the age of 33. After American independence was won, Jefferson worked for the revision of the laws of his home state of Virginia, to bring them into conformity with the freedoms embraced by the new Constitution of the United States. Although he had drafted the states Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom in 1777, Virginias General Assembly postponed its passage. In January 1786, the bill was reintroduced and, with the support of James Madison, passed as An Act for Establishing Religious Freedom. In the election of 1800, Jefferson defeated his old friend John Adams to become the third president of the new United States. An inveterate collector of books, Jefferson sold his personal library to Congress in 1815 in order to rebuild the collection of the Congressional Library, destroyed by fire in 1814. The last years of his life were spent in retirement at Monticello, during which period he founded, designed, and directed the building of the University of Virginia. Jurist, diplomat, writer, inventor, philosopher, architect, gardener, negotiator of the Louisiana Purchase, Thomas Jefferson requested that only three of his many accomplishments be noted on his tomb at Monticello: Author of the Declaration of American IndependenceAuthor of the Virginia Statute for Religious FreedomFather of the University of Virginia Thomas Jeffersons Design for a Plow President Thomas Jefferson, one of Virginias largest planters, considered agriculture to be a science of the very first order, and he studied it with great zeal and commitment. Jefferson introduced numerous plants to the United States, and he frequently exchanged farming advice and seeds with like-minded correspondents. Of particular interest to the innovative Jefferson was farm machinery, especially the development of a plow which would delve deeper than the two to three inches achieved by a standard wooden plow. Jefferson needed a plow and method of cultivation that would help prevent the soil erosion that plagued Virginias Piedmont farms. To this end, he and his son-in-law, Thomas Mann Randolph (1768-1828), who managed much of Jeffersons land, worked together to develop iron and mould  board plows that were specifically designed for hillside plowing, in that they turned the furrow to the downhill side. As the calculations on the sketch show, Jeffersons plows were often based on mathematical formulas, which helped facilitate their duplication and improvement.​​​ Macaroni Machine Jefferson acquired a taste for continental cooking while serving as American minister to France in the 1780s. When he returned to the United States in 1790 he brought with him a French cook and many recipes for French, Italian, and other au courant cookery. Jefferson not only served his guests the best European wines, but he liked to dazzle them with delights such as ice cream, peach flambe, macaroni, and macaroons. This drawing of a macaroni machine, with the sectional view showing holes from which dough could be extruded, reflects Jeffersons curious mind and his interest and aptitude in mechanical matters. Other Inventions of Thomas Jefferson Jefferson designed an improved version of the dumbwaiter. While serving as George Washingtons secretary of state (1790-1793), Thomas Jefferson devised an ingenious, easy, and secure method to encode and decode messages: the Wheel Cipher. In 1804, Jefferson abandoned his copying press and for the rest of his life used exclusively the polygraph for duplicating his correspondence.