Major Research Designs And Methods Psychology Essay

Major Research Designs And Methods Psychology Essay Since time immemorial, Sociologists have been using different designs and research methods to examine society and social behaviour. Most sociological research involves  field work typically designed to depict the characteristics of a population as fully as possible. The designs and methods have proved utilitarian in studying the behaviour and relationships among groups of people and institutions and how their characteristics are shaped by these relationships. It analyses how society changes and how it maintains stability, looking into both unanimity and conflict among different social groups. Sociologys subject matter comprises of social procedures such as, deviance, identity development, socialization and social institutions, including work, religion, family. Major research designs The three most popular social research  designs are discussed below- CROSS SECTIONAL: It is also known as transversal studies,  cross-sectional analyses and  prevalence study. Cross sectional research involves the study of a number of individuals varying in age but have the same attribute or characteristic of interest at a single point of time. It forms a class of  research methods  that necessitate observation of all of a population, or a representative subset, at one specific point in time. They differ from  case-control studies  in that they aim to provide data on the entire population under study, whereas case-control studies typically include only individuals with a specific characteristic, with a sample, often a tiny minority, of the rest of the population. Cross-sectional studies are descriptive studies (neither longitudinal nor experimental). Unlike case-control studies, they can be used to describe, not only the  Odds ratio, but also  absolute risks and  relative risks  from  prevalences.  They may be used to describe some feature of the population, such as  prevalence  of an illness, or they may support inferences of cause and effect.  Longitudinal studies  differ from both in making a series of observations more than once on members of the study population over a period of time. Longitudinal, in which scientists study the same individuals or society repeatedly over a specified period of time. A  longitudinal study  is a  correlation  research study that involves repeated observations of the same variables over long periods of time often many decades. It is a type of observation study. Longitudinal studies are often used in psychology to study developmental trends across the life span, and in sociology  to study life events throughout lifetimes or generations. The reason for this is that unlike  cross-sectional, in which different individuals with same characteristics are compared,[1]  longitudinal studies track the same people, and therefore the differences observed in those people are less likely to be the result of cultural differences across generations. Because of this benefit, longitudinal studies make observing changes more accurate, and they are applied in various other fields. In medicine, the design is used to uncover predictors of ce rtain diseases. In advertising, the design is used to identify the changes that advertising has produced in the attitudes and behaviours of those within the target audience who have seen the advertising campaign. Cross-sequential, in which scientists test individuals in a cross-sectional sample more than once over a specified period of time Six of the most popular sociological research  methods  (procedures) are the  case study, survey, observational, correlation, experimental,  and  cross-cultural methods, as well as working with information already available. Cross sequential studies combine both longitudinal and cross sectional methods in an attempt to both shorten the length of the research and minimize developmental assumptions Research methods Five of the most popular methods which help in sociological research are- Case study Survey Observational Experimental Cross-cultural CASE STUDY METHOD: In  case study research, a research worker analyses a person or small group of individuals with a strange situation or condition. Case studies are usually clinical in scope. The researcher (often a clinical sociologist) sometimes applies self-report measures to gather quantitative data on the field. A comprehensive examination, including a long-term follow-up, can last months or years. The advantage of case study is that, it obtains meaningful information about individuals or groups. The disadvantage is, it is only applicable to individuals with alike characteristics instead of the general population. SURVEY RESEARCH METHOD: It is the most common method by which researchers gather their data. This type of research method  involves face-to-face interviewing or administering  questionnaires, or written surveys, in which interviewer meets with his subject to ask them questions. The investigator examines the data acquired from surveys to know about similarities, differences, and current trend. The researcher then makes predictions about the subjects being studied. Its positive side includes acquiring information from a large number of responders, conducting interviews according to respondents convenience, and obtaining data as tattily as possible. Its negative side includes biased volunteer or interviewer and distortion. Distortion occurs when the subjects are not honest with the investigator. OBSERVATIONAL METHOD: It is also called field research, is a basic of sociology. Observational research involves directly noticing subjects behaviour, either in a laboratory (called laboratory observation) or in a natural environment (called  naturalistic observation). Observational research ensures the investigator that subjects will share totally honest accounts of the experiences, take the study seriously, learn to remember, do not feel embarrassed. Observation studies are of two types- Participant Observation and Non-Participant Observation. In participant the investigator gets an opportunity to be a part of the group he is studying and might even live with them. This must not influence the behaviour or attitude of the people they are studying. In nonparticipant observation, the research worker analyses a group of individual but does not otherwise interact with them. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD: This research method  tries to ascertain  how  and  why  something happens. Experimental research tests the way of how one variable  affects the other. There are various factors that can affect the resultant of any type of experimental research. One is discovering random samples and representative of the universe being analysed. Another is bias  experimenter, in which the investigators prospects about what should or should not occur in the study shake the results. Still some other is ascertaining for  immaterial variables, such as noise level or room temperature, which may intervene with the conclusions of the experiment. Only when researcher cautiously controls for immaterial variables can she or he draw sensible conclusions about the results of specific variables on other. The major plus point of this method is that the experimenter can be reasonably sure of a cause-and-effect relationship. Most experiments take place in the laboratory, which ma y be a room with a unidirectional mirror, but some experiments occur in the field, or in a natural environment. CROSS-CULTURAL METHOD: This method involves the study of values, folkways, norms, attitudes, mores, customs, and practices necessitate knowledge of other societies and cultures. This research is designed to discover variations across people from different culture experience and background. Most cross-cultural research involves direct observation, survey, and  participant observation  methods of research. In participant observation the investigator gets an opportunity to be a part of the subjects community he is studying and might even live with them. The positive aspect of this method of research is that the information obtained is considered within the social, political, economical, and religious systems of that community. The study also demonstrates that Western cultural standards are not necessarily practised by other societies. What may be acceptable or normal for one group may be unacceptable or abnormal for another. Conclusion The important types of sociological research include cross cultural, surveys, experiments, the use of existing data and observational studies. Surveys are the most common of all as it allows the researcher for gathering much information on subjects or respondents that is relatively trivial. The conclusion of surveys that use random samples can be generalized to the population that the sample represents. An observational study is also common and allows us to acquire in-depth knowledge of a small group of individual. Because the samples of these analyses are not random, the outcome cannot necessarily be generalized to a population. Experiments are very less common in sociology. When field experiments are conducted in sociology, they can yield valuable information because of their experimental design.

Slavery and Christianity in Harriet A. Jacob’s Incidents in the Life of

The Incongruity of Slavery and Christianity in Harriet A. Jacob’s Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Written by Herself Slavery, the â€Å"Peculiar Institution† of the South, caused suffering among an innumerable number of human beings. Some people could argue that the life of a domestic animal would be better than being a slave; at least animals are incapable of feeling emotions. Suffering countless atrocities, including sexual assault, beatings, and murders, these slaves endured much more than we would think is humanly possible today. Yet, white southern â€Å"Christians† committed these atrocities, believing their behaviors were neither wrong nor immoral. Looking back at these atrocities, those who call themselves Christians are appalled. In Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Written by Herself, Harriet A. Jacobs describes the hypocrisy of Southern, Christian slave owners in order to show that slavery and Christianity are not congruent. â€Å"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness† (Jefferson). Thomas Jefferson, a white, Christian, political southern slave owner, wrote these words in 1776, a period in United States history when slavery thrived. The writer of the Declaration of Independence contradicts himself when he states that all men are created equal, when in actuality, his slaves were denied all that humans were meant to cherish. The slave owners accepted and rationalized slavery through the Holy Bible. The Bible mentions slavery on numerous occasions, and yet none of these passages condemn it. Timothy 6:1-2 states, â€Å"Let slaves regard th... ...e that chattel slavery was a cruel, perverse institution that no human should ever have to endure. Most people realize today how hypocritical it was to call oneself a Christian, while treating slaves so horribly. Throughout her book, Harriet Jacobs, in Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Written by Herself, revealed Americans everywhere that slave owners were hypocrites, and calling themselves Christians was perhaps the greatest sin of all. Works Cited Jacobs, Harriet A. Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Written by Herself. 1861. Ed. Lydia Maria Child. New ed. Jean Fagan Yellin. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1987. Jefferson, Thomas. â€Å"The Declaration of Independence.† 4 July 1776. The Holy Bible. New International Version. Zondervan Publishing House. 1983. King, Martin Luther. â€Å"I Have a Dream.† Washington, D.C. 28 Aug. 1963.

Project method Essay

1.Advantages of the project method 1.1Group projects enhance individualization- the difference between learners can be accommodated by encouraging them to take responsibility for a section that they have interest in or for which they have the capabilities. 1.2The projects allow learners the freedom to investigate, search for information and display self-expression, creativity and cognitive abilities. 1.3 Group projects provide opportunities for learners to work cooperatively with other learners in a team and enhance their social and communication skills. 1.4Learners are afforded opportunities to investigate and solve practical business-related problems. 1.5Learners are more likely to identify with knowledge that they have helped to collect(Mahaye in Jacobs at al 2002:231-232) Disadvantages of the project method 1.1A project does not contribute to the attainment of learning outcome may lead to a waste of valuable time. 1.2A project that is unachievable due to poor planning and definition may be detrimental to learners’ self concept and motivation. 2.Requirements for effective planning in teaching Business Studies †¢The teachers should have a good knowledge of their subject. †¢They should formulate clear aims of outcomes so that they themselves and their learners know exactly where they are going. †¢They should be familiar with the various approaches in Business Studies and also the sequence in which the material should be presented and then select the most meaningful approach and sequence. †¢Be familiar and use teaching methods that encourages effective participative learning. †¢Be aware of what teaching media are available and know when and how to use them. †¢Be able to asses learning, to maintain a high standard and to use evaluation to improve the quality of their teaching. 3.The critical outcomes †¢Identify and solve problems in which responses show that responsible decisions have been made using critical and creative thinking. †¢Work effectively with others as a member of a team, group, an organization or community. †¢Organize and manage themselves and their activities responsible  and effectively. †¢Collect, analyze, organize and critically evaluate information. †¢Communicate effectively using visual, mathematical or language skills in the modes of oral or written presentations. †¢Use science and technology effectively and critically showing responsibility towards the environment and health of others. †¢Demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems by recognizing that problem solving contexts do not exist in isolation The development outcomes †¢Reflect on and exploring a variety of strategies for more effective learning. †¢Participate as a responsible citizen in the life of local, national and global communication. †¢Be cultural and aesthetically across a range of social contexts. †¢Explore education and career opportunities. †¢Develop entrepreneurial opportunities 4.Factors to be considered in the choice of methods instructions †¢The learning outcome- What is the aim of a lesson? Is it to introduce new information, apply the theory in practice or revise completed work? †¢Learners needs- If the learner does not understand the work that has been explained, a teaching method should be chosen that provides opportunities for asking questions so that any obscurities and problems can be cleared up. †¢The subject contents- some subject contents are more practical while others are more theoretical. When section of the subject is extremely practical (e.g. market research) it is preferable to choose a method in which demonstrations and examples can be used to explain the subject content. †¢Learners talents and gifts- learners who are less gifted have difficulty learning hence the need for sufficient illustrations, demonstration, learner involvement and repetition. More gifted learners learn more quickly and are able to concentrate for longer periods. You should therefore choose methods that allow a learner to perform according to his/her abilities. †¢The competence of a teacher- You should know your own abilities and shortcoming. For example if you are not computer literate, you may decide to use and expert to deal with content on computer applications (emails, electronic storage and retrieval etc) if you have speech problems  you should avoid using the lecture method.

The Inventing Life of Thomas Jefferson

Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13, 1743, at Shadwell in Albemarle County, Virginia. A member of the Continental Congress, he was the author of the Declaration of Independence at the age of 33. After American independence was won, Jefferson worked for the revision of the laws of his home state of Virginia, to bring them into conformity with the freedoms embraced by the new Constitution of the United States. Although he had drafted the states Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom in 1777, Virginias General Assembly postponed its passage. In January 1786, the bill was reintroduced and, with the support of James Madison, passed as An Act for Establishing Religious Freedom. In the election of 1800, Jefferson defeated his old friend John Adams to become the third president of the new United States. An inveterate collector of books, Jefferson sold his personal library to Congress in 1815 in order to rebuild the collection of the Congressional Library, destroyed by fire in 1814. The last years of his life were spent in retirement at Monticello, during which period he founded, designed, and directed the building of the University of Virginia. Jurist, diplomat, writer, inventor, philosopher, architect, gardener, negotiator of the Louisiana Purchase, Thomas Jefferson requested that only three of his many accomplishments be noted on his tomb at Monticello: Author of the Declaration of American IndependenceAuthor of the Virginia Statute for Religious FreedomFather of the University of Virginia Thomas Jeffersons Design for a Plow President Thomas Jefferson, one of Virginias largest planters, considered agriculture to be a science of the very first order, and he studied it with great zeal and commitment. Jefferson introduced numerous plants to the United States, and he frequently exchanged farming advice and seeds with like-minded correspondents. Of particular interest to the innovative Jefferson was farm machinery, especially the development of a plow which would delve deeper than the two to three inches achieved by a standard wooden plow. Jefferson needed a plow and method of cultivation that would help prevent the soil erosion that plagued Virginias Piedmont farms. To this end, he and his son-in-law, Thomas Mann Randolph (1768-1828), who managed much of Jeffersons land, worked together to develop iron and mould  board plows that were specifically designed for hillside plowing, in that they turned the furrow to the downhill side. As the calculations on the sketch show, Jeffersons plows were often based on mathematical formulas, which helped facilitate their duplication and improvement.​​​ Macaroni Machine Jefferson acquired a taste for continental cooking while serving as American minister to France in the 1780s. When he returned to the United States in 1790 he brought with him a French cook and many recipes for French, Italian, and other au courant cookery. Jefferson not only served his guests the best European wines, but he liked to dazzle them with delights such as ice cream, peach flambe, macaroni, and macaroons. This drawing of a macaroni machine, with the sectional view showing holes from which dough could be extruded, reflects Jeffersons curious mind and his interest and aptitude in mechanical matters. Other Inventions of Thomas Jefferson Jefferson designed an improved version of the dumbwaiter. While serving as George Washingtons secretary of state (1790-1793), Thomas Jefferson devised an ingenious, easy, and secure method to encode and decode messages: the Wheel Cipher. In 1804, Jefferson abandoned his copying press and for the rest of his life used exclusively the polygraph for duplicating his correspondence.

Technology For The Greater Good - 1704 Words

Igor Stepanov Professor Simental English 1A 15 April, 2015 Technology for the Greater Good Some say that technology is the evil that will overcome humanity, others say it is something that will lead us to a new way of thinking about the world. In the book Remix by Catherine Latterell, she writes three assumptions about technology: Technologies are machines, technologies bring progress or peril, and technology is neutral. These assumptions are what some people make about the technology. In Latterell’s book there was an article by Langdon Winner who wrote â€Å"Technology Somnambulism† which was about how in the modern world we are being controlled by technology, we change the way we live because of technology. Now given the assumptions that Latterell gives, technology can really be seen as something that is good for the world because it can teach us how to be a better socializer, speeds up the process of doing things, and allows a new kind of learning tool for future generations. A study at a Dominican University of California w as done, were they monitored teenagers’ social cognitive effects of technology and had learned that texting will be used by the left side of the brain which controls the skills for math and logic. Because of texting the teenagers are working out their left side of the brain. Although texting can be addicted to some teenagers, for others it is a way that they can identify. Likewise, Ives a student who was had written an academic journal for their DegreeShow MoreRelatedThe Ethical Theory Of Virtue Ethics1115 Words   |  5 PagesUtilitarianism/Consequentialism Now let’s review this technology and the moral dilemmas it raises through the principle of Utilitarianism. A Utilitarian might ask questions like, whom does this technology benefit the most? Or does the benefit of using this technology outweigh the cost? Utilitarianism prescribes happiness for the greatest number of people. 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As the internet and E-Commerce become more integrated into our lives they continuingly drive changes in how we work and live as mentioned above. The future of E-CommerceRead MoreAirline Industry : Southwest Airlines837 Words   |  4 Pagestheir brands from competitors by proactively creating value for customers. Since 2001, the airline industry has experienced greater costs due to the failing economy, volatile prices for fuel, and increased global competition. In order to combat these environmental factors, Southwest Airlines keeps airfare costs lower than those of competitors, focuses on fuel-efficient technology, and expands its services into other countries. In a time period with a weak economy due to multiple recessions, Southwest

Lil Wayne The Best Rapper Alive Essay - 1625 Words

Music can rock your world, enlighten your mind and change your perspective. When you think of rap music who comes first to mind? Without hesitation, it must be the self acclaimed best rapper alive, Lil Wayne. He alone can make such statements as â€Å"My picture should be in the dictionary next to the definition of definition† (Wayne, â€Å"Shoot Me Down†). Lil Wayne is a prominent force in the rap world. His debut Album in 1999, Tha Block is Hot went double platinum upon its release and even his lowest selling album is still certified as gold according to the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Rollingstone Magazine declares â€Å"Lil Wayne is one of the most popular — and prolific — recording artists in the world† (Kreps). Top this with†¦show more content†¦After a friend introduced him to the owners of Cash Money Records, he pestered them by leaving rap songs on the owners’ answering machines until they finally woul d give him a chance. The owners, Bryan â€Å"Birdman† or â€Å"Baby† Williams and Ronald â€Å"Slim† Williams signed him to their record label when he was 12 going by the name of Gangsta D. The owners were impressed by his freestyle abilities. Birdman really liked the young Carter and took him under his wing so to speak and became his mentor. Many people mistakenly believe that Birdman is Lil Wayne’s father and they are additionally confused by the fact that Lil Wayne also refers to Birdman as his dad and pa, but there is actually no relation. The first album released with Cash Money Records was in 1995 when the producer, Mannie Fresh, teamed Dwayne with a 14 year old named B.G. The album was called True Story. In 1997 there was supposed to be a follow up album; however his mom tried to put a stop to his association with Cash Money Records after she noticed him wearing gang related clothes, but Dwayne ran away. He took his stepfather’s gun with him and accidentally shot himself. He was taken to the hospital and questioned by police. He admitted stealing his stepfather’s gun. This landed Rabbit in jail for having an unregistered handgun. Sadly, a short time after Rabbit was released from jail he was kidnapped and killed. In 1997 according to MTV, Dwayne â€Å"officiallyShow MoreRelatedWhat Makes A Rapper?887 Words   |  4 PagesSome of the valued assets in rappers are: quality [of work] and longevity, songwriting and storytelling, impact, and perhaps the most vital asset; rhyming skills [flow, delivery, and lyricism] (cite). These qualities of what makes a rapper an efficacious one have been greatly debated since the formation of hip-hop, and ultimately rap, culture in the 1970’s (cite). Those with a passion for hip-hop and rap music can debate their top ten favorite rap artists indefinitely due to the abundance in whatRead MoreThe Divisions among Black People1873 Words   |  8 Pagesmedia then you’ve definitely seen tweets and Facebook statuses referring to the â€Å"Team Light Skin vs. Team Dark Skin† controversy in the black community, especially pertaining to and among females. Most comments are on the lines of â€Å"Light skin is the best skin†, â€Å"Oh you’re cute for a dark skin girl†, or â€Å"She’s light skin, so she has to be stuck up†. The black community refers to the two skin tones as if they’re two different races and one is better than the other. To sum up this behavior in one word

Heart Of Darkness Kurtz According To Marlow free essay sample

Essay, Research Paper The Last Disciple: Joseph Conrad s Heart of Darkness When a adult male s life is the sea he has much clip to believe about that life and who he truly is or might be. In Heart of Darkness Joseph Conrad introduces readers to two such work forces who are at different phases of their quest to happen out who they are. The two work forces, Marlow and Kurtz, possess traits that are a small common to every adult male s life, and seem to be heading in a similar way. The calling Kurtz has made for himself is non one of esteem. Kurtz had been considered in the yesteryear to be an honest adult male, but his exposure to the jungle and the immorality within that jungle has turned him into a ill and evil adult male. Despite all of this Marlow maintains that Kurtz was a singular adult male ( 1480 ) and remains loyal to Kurtz at the last ( 1481 ) . We will write a custom essay sample on Heart Of Darkness Kurtz According To Marlow or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Marlow says this of Kurtz because he, like Kurtz, entered the Congo with what he believed to be good purposes, and even though he may see that Kurtz is making the incorrect thing he admirers him because in the terminal Kurtz has a disclosure before his decease in which he discovers himself and how atrocious the fraudulence of adult male can be. As Marlow makes his journey up the river all he can believe about is Kurtz. In this mission to happen Kurtz, Marlow compares everyone he meets to him. Equally good as seeking to happen Kurtz, Marlow is in fact seeking to happen himself. As Kurtz continues he finds himself acquiring barbarian which implies that he was going more like Kurtz. Kurtz is a liquidator, stealer, tormentor, and worst of all he allows himself to be worshiped as a God. Marlow is non like this at all. Marlow can non even bear a prevarication ( 1446 ) allow entirely make the atrocious things that Kurtz has done. After all of this why would Marlow state that Kurtz is a singular adult male? He does this because Kurtz was able, on his deathbed, to judge what he had done was incorrect. The horror! The horror cried Kurtz as his concluding words. Marlow doesn T at foremost cognize what to do of this but latter comes to more of a realisation. Marlow says that he has peeped over the border himself and because of this he can understand better the significance of his stare. What Marlow is connoting is that he excessively has looked lustfully at the evil side of life that he could easy had turned to and because of this better understands the expression in Kurtz s eyes. It [ the stare ] was broad plenty to encompass the whole existence, piercing adequate to perforate all of the Black Marias that beat in the darkness he had summed up, he had judged. Marlow believes at this point that everything in life had now become clear to Kurtz. Marlow now knew that interior of every adult male is an evil side. When Marlow states that Kurtz was a singular adult male he is non stating Kurtz was a great adult male. One must retrieve that singular agencies impressive or unusual, non great. Kurtz surely was unusual. Upon Marlow # 8217 ; s reaching at Kurtz s tusk decease compound he is introduced to another supporter of Kurtz. The adult male is a twenty-five-year-old Russian mariner and has been taking attention of the now ill Kurtz at the Inner Station. Not excessively long after run intoing the Russian, Marlow refers to him as Kurtz s last adherent ( 1471 ) . Marlow makes it clear that Kurtz is no graven image of his to the Russian but later becomes the adherent himself ( 1471 ) . Marlow becomes this adherent non because of what Kurtz has done, but instead what Kurtz has taught him. The Heart of Darkness is the immorality within adult male. Marlow was easy stealing into his bosom of darkness before Kurtz had his deathbed realisation. Marlow learned a batch from Kurtz. Regardless of his former humanity, Kurtz had proceeded all of his immorality with a sane head. It was his spiritualty that had been corrupted. Conrad uses Kurtz to show the immorality that lurks in all work forces waiting to be set free. He is stating us that adult male is non as far from the horrors which society has condemned. Marlow remains loyal to Kurtz at the last ( 1481 ) because he has taught Marlow of the bosom of darkness within all of us. That evil side skulking within that must be controlled if we are to maintain our humanity.